What Are Executive Functions?

Executive functions are brain-based cognitive skills that facilitate critical thinking and self-regulation. Executive functions call upon the prefrontal cortex of our brains to help with goal-setting and decision-making. Executive functions include a set of related skills that help prioritize, regulate, and orchestrate an individual’s thoughts and behaviors. The executive functions help individuals manage their feelings and actions, monitor their behaviors, and attend to their experiences from the past and the present.

Executive Functions Help With:

• “What to do” skills, such as starting tasks, paying attention, persevering, and remembering.
• “How to do” skills, such as planning, organizing, shifting strategies, and managing time. They also help people manage their perceptions, thoughts, actions, and social interactions.

Psychologists have described dozens of definitions for executive functions, including those by Russell Barkley, Thomas Brown, and Peg Dawson and Richard Guare. The consensus is that executive functions orchestrate various brain functions that integrate a person’s perceptions, experiences, cognitions, and memories toward goal-directed behavior.

We have chosen to modify the model described by Peg Dawson and Richard Guare as the basis for our descriptions of executive functions. We believe that their description is an excellent fit for understanding how children use executive functions in their day-to-day lives. It is important to note that this list of executive functions is neither comprehensive nor categorical. For example, specific skills seen in planning may also be described in organization. In addition, examples of executive dysfunctions, such as problems in completing homework, often involve many executive function skills, such as time management, perseverance, and sustained attention. (Click here to learn more about the Theories of Executive Functioning)

The 12 Executive Functions

(In our broader LearningWorks for Kids website and LearningWorks for Kids, we have chosen to condense the 12 Executive Functions into 8 Thinking Skills. The 12 function model below provides more detail and more closely resembles the theories of Peg Dawson and Richard Guare.)

• Flexibility – The ability to be adaptable, improvise, and shift approaches to demands.
• Goal-Directed Persistence - The ability to persevere with tasks that require sustained effort. (Part of the Thinking Skill of Focus)
• Metacognition – The ability to self-monitor and observe. (Part of the Thinking Skill of Self-Awareness)
• Organization – The ability to use a systematic approach to achieve a goal.
• Planning – The ability to develop a set of strategies in order to accomplish a goal.
• Regulation of Affect – The ability to manage one’s feelings effectively for decision-making and task completion. (Part of the Thinking Skill of Self-Control)
• Response Inhibition – The ability to stop or delay an action rather than display impulsive behavior. (Part of the Thinking Skill of Self-Control)
• Social Thinking – The ability to respond appropriately to social conditions. (Part of the Thinking Skill of Self-Awareness)
• Sustained Attention – The ability to maintain one’s focus and attention in the presence of distractions. (Part of the Thinking Skill of Focus)
• Task Initiation – The ability to initiate a task without procrastination. (Part of the Thinking Skill of Focus)
• Time Management – The ability to respond to things in a timely fashion. Working Memory – The ability to remember something while performing an action with this memory.
• Working Memory - The ability to remember and use relevant information while in the middle of an activity.

Theories of Executive Functioning

We have chosen to categorize executive functions into 12 separate but interrelated skills. There are numerous other conceptualizations of executive functioning, some of which describe a smaller but broader range of executive skills, such as those seen in the theories of Russell Barkley, Ph.D. and Thomas Brown, Ph.D. Other authors have described various executive skills that are supplemental to those that we use at LearningWorks for Kids. Some of these different conceptualizations of executive functions are presented in the following list, with brief definitions:

• Nonverbal working memory (maintaining mental information in the mind)
• The capacities for control and self-regulation (motor response, hindsight, retrospective and anticipatory thinking and actions)
• The ability to consider the future (to work out the consequences of one’s actions)
• Problem-recognition skills (the capacity to identify and solve problems)
• Fluency (as measured by efficient scanning, manipulation, and decision-making)
• The capacity to engage in independent, purposeful, and self-serving behaviors and to grasp the gist of a complex situation (goal-setting and decision-making)
• Hypothesis-generation and testing (as required in the scientific method)
• Common sense (the ability to apply one’s experience in new situations)
• Judgment and decision-making skills (the capacity to accurately appraise and analyze)
• The ability to take in all aspects of a situation and then integrate them in decision-making (perspective-taking and metacognition)
• Volitional skills and the capacity to formulate goals and form an intention (Self-directed behavior)

Russell Barkley, Ph.D., one of the leading experts in the fields of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and executive functioning, describes how executive functions allow for self-regulation. Barkley describes how executive functions help control human behavior, ranging from that which involves external events to mental representations of those events; control by others to control of the self; immediate reinforcement to delayed gratification; and the present to the possible future. Barkley posits that the ability to “inhibit a preponderant response” is the primary executive function upon which other functions evolve. He sees this type of behavioral inhibition as being crucial for the development of executive functions, including verbal working memory, nonverbal working memory, regulation of emotions and volition, and reconstitution (which facilitates taking old experiences and putting them together to help in new situations).

Russell Barkley’s model describes behavioral inhibition as the primary executive function in that it helps an individual to be able to think before acting and responding so that other executive functions can then be employed. These other executive functions include working memory, which allows one to move beyond the “here and now;” the ability to regulate affect and motivation, which impacts the control of one’s behaviors and emotions; the internalization of speech, which leads to metacognitive skills, planning words and concepts, and problem-solving; and reconstitution, the final phase, which allows an individual to recombine behaviors, thoughts, memories, and analyses in order to engage in appropriate problem-solving behaviors.

Barkley emphasizes the use of executive functions to guide behavior toward hypothetical future events. He describes Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder as a performance disorder rather than a skill disorder. According to Barkley, it is not that an individual lacks the skills for planning, regulating his/her behavior, or sustaining his/her attention but that he/she has difficulty at the point of performing these behaviors. As a result, his recommendations are that interventions take place at this point of performance.

Thomas Brown, Ph.D. has developed a theory of executive skills in which he describes six clusters of cognitive functions. He describes each cluster as a basket containing a variety of related cognitive abilities. These clusters include activation (which involves organizing, prioritizing, and activating tasks), focus (which helps with sustaining and shifting attention), effort (which helps with sustaining energy and processing speed), emotion (which revolves around managing frustration and regulating feelings), memory (which involves utilizing one’s working memory and following directions), and action (which involves the ability to monitor and regulate one’s behaviors and actions). The theories of both Barkley and Brown suggest that deficits in executive functioning are core components of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorders and relate to a number of other difficulties in learning and thinking skills. Brown describes Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder as a developmental impairment, or delay, of executive functions that connect, prioritize, and integrate neural networks that manage the brain. He describes such executive functioning impairments as involving difficulties in slowing down and speeding up, shifting attention, and sustaining the focus necessary to complete a task.

A number of researchers have suggested that executive functions can be divided into hot and cold executive functions. Hot executive functions involve tasks with affective components, in which rewards and punishments are often present. Hot executive functions involve traits such as impulsivity and response inhibition. It is believed that these executive functions are centered in the orbital and prefrontal cortex of the brain. Cold executive functions are described as involving tasks that are mostly cognitive in nature. Examples of cold executive functions include working memory, sustained attention, and organization. These executive functions are presumed to be located in the brain’s dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex.

While a number of early theories suggested that executive functions solely involve the prefrontal cortex of the brain, recent data suggest that executive functions are part of a neural network that involves the prefrontal cortex, the cordate, the dorsal lateral cortex, and the hippocampus in the temporal lobe. Other areas of the network include the frontal lobes, the cerebellum, and the basal gangalia, which are all strongly linked. As a result of recent advances in using Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (FMRI) tests, executive functions are now increasingly being seen as constituting a major network in the brain, in which there exists multiple reciprocal connections and a great deal of complexity. Another perspective is to view the prefrontal cortex as being the final common pathway for managing information that comes from within the brain (internal-based information) and from external stimuli, such as that which comes from one’s environment.

Another conceptualization of executive functions is that they are psychological constructs that describe “how and whether” a person does something, not what he/she does, and that they involve the capacities to engage in independent and purposeful activity that may be self-serving. In contrast, Russell Barkley suggests that, rather than “how and whether,” executive functions involve the “when or whether” aspects of behavior.

Early conceptualizations of executive functioning suggested that such functions are static and preformed and conceived that the impact of the environment and training on executive function development is minimal. The Russian psychologist Luria (1973) described executive functioning as the ability to maintain an appropriate skill set in order to achieve a future goal. Alan Baddeley (1986) described executive functions as mechanisms by which performance is optimized in situations requiring simultaneous operation of a number of cognitive processes. Welsh and Pennington (1991) described executive functions as involving strategic planning, impulse control, organized search, and flexibility of thought and action. Martha Denckla (1989) described executive functioning as the ability to plan and sequence complex behaviors and simultaneously attend to multiple sources of information; her definition also included the ability to grasp the gist of complex situations, to resist distraction and interference, to inhibit inappropriate responses, and to sustain behavior for long periods of time.

Modern conceptualizations of executive functions point to the importance of personal experience and the environment. These views see the brain-basis of executive functions as being malleable in response to teaching, practice, and learning opportunities. This view, supported by modern neuroscience research, is consistent with the LearningWorks for Kids perspective, which views executive “skills” as capacities to engage in purposeful behavior rather than as fixed abilities in the brain.

Who Struggles with Executive Functioning?

Many children and adults have difficulties with one or more executive functions. It is not uncommon for parents to report their own problems with organization or working memory. Task initiation and time management difficulties are often seen in school and work settings. In fact, most people who struggle with executive functioning are never "diagnosed" with a problem but simply see it as an area of weakness for them. In today's complicated, and disconcerting, world, deficits in these skills can cause problems in managing one's life and getting things done efficiently.

Children with psychiatric issues, such as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder; learning disabilities; and problems in social, emotional, and behavioral functioning, often display impairments in their use of executive functions. They may display difficulties in getting started on tasks, sustaining attention and effort levels, following multi-step directions, staying organized, and managing time effectively. It is important to note that many children will display executive strengths in certain areas and dysfunctions in others. These differences can often be explained by both biological and environmental factors.

Other childhood psychiatric conditions, such as Autism, Aspergers Disorder, anxiety disorders, and Tourettes Disorder, may be significantly impacted by executive dysfunctions. For example, a child with Aspergers Disorder may be extremely rigid, with limited executive functioning skills in the areas of flexibility and social thinking.

Many children with executive functioning difficulties are often undiagnosed, but their problems are usually identifiable through school. Children with executive functioning difficulties often manifest as alternative learners, or students who struggle in traditional classrooms.

Executive Dysfunctions

Executive dysfunctions, or difficulties employing executive functioning skills, are telltale features of most psychiatric diagnoses in children. In fact, many leading researchers are now primarily defining Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder as an executive functioning disorder. Similarly, many youngsters who have learning disabilities display an array of executive dysfunctions that underlie many of their academic struggles.

It is important to note that the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual IV (DMS-IV) does not directly incorporate executive dysfunctions into psychiatric diagnoses. However, understanding the executive dysfunctions that are characteristic of psychiatric disorders is very helpful in developing educational and psychological interventions for individuals.

It is common for individuals to experience difficulties with one or two executive functions. For example, many adults will describe themselves as struggling with organization or occasionally having difficulties regulating their anger. The presence of moderate difficulties in executive functions does not warrant a psychiatric diagnosis. However, in the school setting, students’ difficulties with executive functions such as planning, organization, working memory, and time management can often lead to their meeting with serious setbacks in academic performance.

The following is a list of broad diagnostic categories (not formal psychiatric diagnoses) and the primary executive dysfunctions that are likely to be encountered by individuals who have these disorders. This list is designed to assist educators in two ways:

1. Should a child have a specific psychiatric diagnosis, it may help you to identify some of the executive difficulties that they are likely to experience in the classroom.
2. If you are identifying some of these executive difficulties in the classroom, it may help you in developing a broader understanding of other issues that the child may be experiencing.

Diagnosis: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

Impaired executive skills:

• Sustained attention -- has difficulty attending in the presence of distractions; has problems sustaining attention and effort levels while engaged in tasks
• Working memory -- has difficulty following multi-step directions; has problems remembering what he/she has read
• Response inhibition -- has difficulty thinking before acting
• Time management -- may waste time or rush through tasks, thus executing them inefficiently and ineffectively

Diagnosis: Executive Functioning Disorder

Impaired executive skills:

• Task initiation -- has difficulty knowing how to get started on a task and sustaining the attention and effort levels needed to complete the task
• Planning -- has difficulty identifying and employing strategies and systematic approaches in order to reach a goal
• Working memory -- has difficulty keeping things in mind and controlling attention while engaged in an activity
• Organization -- has difficulty organizing objects, ideas, and possessions
• Flexibility -- has the tendency to be rigid and to not learn from mistakes
• Regulation of affect -- struggles to manage feelings, actions, and frustrations
• Time management -- lacks efficiency in starting and completing tasks
• Social thinking -- has difficulty understanding his/her motivations and the thoughts and feelings of others

Diagnosis: Asperger's Disorder

Impaired executive skills:

• Social thinking -- struggles to understand social cues and lacks social-communication skills
• Flexibility -- may be rigid with regard to his/her interests; struggles with changing routines
• Planning -- may have difficulty thinking about all the different sides of a situation or determining where to devote his/her energy and effort

Diagnosis: Pervasive Developmental Disorder NOS

Impaired executive skills:

• Social thinking -- struggles to understand social cues and lacks social-communication skills
• Flexibility - may be rigid with regard to his/her interests; struggles with changing routines
• Planning -- may have difficulty thinking about all the different sides of a situation or determining where to devote his/her energy and effort

Diagnosis: Autism

Impaired executive skills:

• Social thinking - struggles to understand social cues and lacks social-communication skills
• Flexibility - may be rigid with regard to his/her interests; struggles with changing routines
• Planning -- may have difficulty thinking about all the different sides of a situation or determining where to devote his/her energy and effort

Diagnosis: Dyslexia

Impaired executive skills:

• Working memory -- may struggle to keep phonemes (letter sounds) in mind when decoding/sounding out words
• Working memory -- may struggle to keep in mind the meaning of previous sentences in order to attain/enhance reading comprehension
• Organization -- may struggle to keep ideas in mind in order to understand a paragraph, story, or book
• Time management -- may struggle with fluency and pace while reading, causing comprehension difficulties and other issues
• Sustained attention -- may have difficulty sustaining the attention and effort levels necessary to support the constant practice that struggling readers require

Diagnosis: Dysgraphia

Impaired executive skills:

• Time management -- struggles with writing fluency and experiences difficulty due to the length of time that it takes to engage in producing written language
• Organization -- may struggle with organizing ideas for written materials; may have good ideas but cannot put them together in a meaningful fashion
• Planning -- may struggle to connect ideas in written form
• Working memory -- may have difficulty holding ideas in the mind while in the process of writing them down
• Task persistence -- may struggle to sustain the attention and effort levels necessary to complete tasks that are difficult for him/her

Diagnosis: Nonverbal Learning Disability

Impaired executive skills:

• Social thinking -- struggles to understand social cues and lacks social-communication skills
• Flexibility - may be rigid with regard to his/her interests; struggles with changing routines
• Planning -- may have difficulty thinking about all the different sides of a situation or determining where to devote his/her energy and effort

Diagnosis: Social Skills Deficits

Impaired executive skills:

• Metacognition -- has difficulty understanding the impact of his/her behavior on others
• Social thinking -- may experience difficulty in observing nonverbal and social cues
• Flexibility -- may struggle to adapt to new or unexpected changes in social settings

Diagnosis: Anxiety

Impaired executive skills:

• Regulation of affect -- may struggle to manage feelings of fear, worry, and tension
• Flexibility -- may be rigid and experience the need to have control in situations in order to reduce tension
• Task initiation -- has difficulty knowing how to get started on a task; becomes concerned with whether or not he/she is doing it correctly

Diagnosis: Depression

Impaired executive skills:

• Regulation of affect -- struggles to manage sad and pessimistic feelings
• Regulation of affect -- may have difficulty managing negative self-thoughts
• Metacognition -- may struggle to accurately estimate his/her abilities, often underestimating him/herself
• Task initiation -- may struggle to get him/herself started on and energized to complete uninspiring tasks

Diagnosis: Oppositional Defiant Disorder

Impaired executive skills:

• Response inhibition -- may act before thinking and engage in defiant behavior
• Flexibility -- may be rigid with regard to his/her expectations and oppositional when things do not go the way that he/she expects them to
• Regulation of affect -- may easily anger with little cause/provocation

Diagnosis: Conduct Disorder

Impaired executive skills:

• Response inhibition -- may disregard the rights of others
• Response inhibition -- may act out in a violent or aggressive fashion
• Flexibility -- may be rigid with regard to his/her expectations and oppositional when things do not go the way that he/she expects them to

How Do Executive Functions Develop Throughout Childhood?

Executive functioning skills develop throughout childhood and early adulthood. Children as young as eight-months-old are observed displaying consciously-controlled behaviors that reflect executive functions. As children get older, they display increasing skill in solving problems and maintaining thoughts and images in their minds. Demands for increasingly complex executive functions arise throughout childhood, but problems may not be noticed until children reach the middle-school years, when demands for organization and planning for the future become prominent.

Executive functions may be slow to develop in some individuals. Neuroscientists have indicated that the prefrontal portion of the cortex, the area of the brain most responsible for executive functions, is among the last of the brain regions to mature. In the past, it was often believed that brain-based capacities could not be changed. However, recent research linking a number of brain exercises to the development of new neural networks in the brain suggests that training can promote improvements in brain activity.

Development of Executive Functioning

The first signs of executive functioning in infants begin to emerge when a child approaches the age of 1. A child’s ability to consciously control his/her thoughts, actions, and emotions can be observed when he/she begins to search for an object that has just been hidden by a parent or a sibling. This type of activity, described by Philip David Zelazo, Ph.D. as a form of “hide-and-seek,” suggests executive skills, since the baby is able to keep the hidden object in mind and form an action. This process is considered to constitute a conscious effort in the pursuit of a goal.

As a child approaches the age of 2, he/she begins to show the ability to comply with verbal rules and directions. In addition, children at this stage begin to keep verbal rules in mind and use them to guide their behaviors. By the age of 4, children begin to display more flexible behavior rather than the persevering behaviors that they may have demonstrated at the age of 3. Their decision-making capacities, and, in turn, their executive functioning skills, begin to allow them to consider more than one possible answer.

The development of executive functions directly parallels brain growth and development in children. The synapses, or connections, among neurons in the brain reach their peak density between the ages of 1 and 2. These synapses are then pruned, or deleted, so that the stronger connections in the brain remain. This process helps the frontal lobe of the brain form stronger links to the rest of the brain, facilitating executive functioning. Individuals with significant damage to their frontal lobes and prefrontal cortex have numerous deficits in executive functioning, including high levels of impulsivity, poor judgment, irresponsibility, and numerous difficulties with decision-making and monitoring their behavior.

As a child's brain matures, it not only grows in size through a regeneration of neurons but also develops an extraordinary number of branches that allow for nerve cells to communicate with each other, increasing the capacity for complex thinking and decision-making. Executive functions do not operate independently in decision-making and are highly dependent upon the quality of information that the brain receives. Of particular importance are environmental factors and learning experiences that contribute to brain growth and development. The quality of executive functioning skills may be based upon accurate sensations of one's world, emotional and motivational states, memory capacity, and the ability to use language.

One prominent theory of executive functioning development was formulated by Russell Barkley, Ph.D., who proposed that, within the first 6 to 12 months of life, children are developing the executive function of behavioral inhibition. Behavioral inhibition allows a child to think before acting and to decide when or if to respond to a situation. Barkley suggests that the skill of working memory, which involves holding events in the mind, occurs next. This skill is followed by the internalization of speech, which involves the use of language to aid in decision-making. The next stage involves the self-regulation of affect, emotional self-control, and the regulation of motivation and energy in order to achieve a goal. This stage is followed by what Barkley refers to as reconstitution, which involves the capacity to analyze and monitor one's behavior and the ability to develop strategies for using one's skills in order to solve new problems.

Executive functioning in children appears to develop in a sequential fashion. Distinct growth patterns have been observed indicating that there are periods of intense development between the ages of 5 and 7, 9 and 12, and during adolescence. Between the ages of 5 and 7, children typically begin to display the capacity for longer periods of sustained attention and the use of silent verbal mediation to guide themselves. Information-processing capacities, accuracy, and fluency dramatically increase between ages 9 and 12. Adolescence brings the capacity to consider “what if” situations and also precipitates increased planning, organizational, and problem-solving skills.

Interestingly, recent research indicates that the prefrontal cortex is not fully developed until an individual reaches his/her early to mid-30s. This long-term development may account, in part, for why many individuals choose to “settle down” when they reach this age. Other recent studies indicate that the circuitry in the frontal and temporal areas of the brain shows a maturational delay in children with ADHD and with problems in executive controls. The most recent research data from the National Institute of Mental Health are somewhat unclear as to whether individuals with ADHD/executive dysfunctions eventually “catch up” in the development of these brain areas. The recent advances in neuroscience and brain imagery techniques all point to the same conclusions -- that environment, experience, and enrichment can lead to the growth and development of brain connections; that these gains can occur over an extended period of time; and that such progress can contribute to the development of executive functioning skills.

In school settings, such differences in developmental maturity may play an important role with regard to the varying degrees of academic success. Students for whom the development of the prefrontal cortex is lagging are likely to struggle with self-management skills, encountering difficulties when they attempt school-based tasks, such as long-term projects or lengthy writing assignments, that require the coordination of many executive skills. These students will benefit from a proactive approach that provides training and support from parents and teachers and creates opportunities for students to practice these executive skills.

Why Are Executive Functions Important for Academic Performance?

A number of executive skills are easily identifiable as being crucial to classroom success. For example, the executive skills of organization and planning help students to write down their homework, remember to do it, and then return it to class the next day. Executive skills such as task initiation, sustained attention, and task persistence are necessary for starting and completing long-term projects.

Executive functions are also directly related to the development of many academic skills. For example, working memory skills, used when a child is able to keep different sounds of a word in mind while sounding it out, are necessary for word-decoding. Working memory skills are also required for reading comprehension, when a child needs to keep in mind what has occurred in previous sentences and then integrate this information in order to achieve a cohesive understanding of the text. Metacognition, the capacity to think about one's thinking, has become a crucial skill in the new math, in which children are required to not only provide an answer but to also explain their thinking in how they arrived at their answer. Executive functions play a role in other academic tasks, including reading fluency, written content, math computations, and note-taking.

Links between Academic Skills and Executive Functions

Academic Skills	Associated Executive Functions	Application of Executive Functions
Reading
	Working Memory	Learning how to decode words Keeping track of various elements of a story Using context clues to aid in comprehension Recalling previously-learned vocabularly
	Flexibility	Manipulating and identifying sound patterns when decoding words Integrating new content with background knowledge Making inferences
	Focus	Sustaining attention during a reading task Persisting even when one becomes frustrated Taking time to absorb the material that is being read
	Metacognition	Making connections before, during, and after reading Self-checking and monitoring comprehension
	Planning	Forming comprehension goals before reading Devising a plan to monitor and reach goals
	Organization	Using graphic organizers to keep track of information Ordering and sequencing story events
Writing
	Focus	Being able to focus on ideas as they come Sustaining attention and effort levels with regard to the physical act of writing Not giving up when frustrated
	Task Initiation	Being able to get ideas down on paper with little hesitation or self-doubt Brainstorming and writing down all ideas to keep from getting stuck
	Metacognition	Thinking about one's ideas and how to best express them through writing Revising and editing one's own work Self-evaluating one’s product
	Time Management	Using time effectively to organize ideas and generate a product Gauging the amount of time needed to produce a response for a test/quiz question or prompt
	Planning	Brainstorming and outlining ideas (pre-writing) Thinking ahead about audience, purpose, and clarity of ideas
	Working Memory	Keeping multiple ideas in mind at once Being aware of sentence flow Recalling spelling and grammar rules
	Organization	Presenting ideas in a logical order Prioritizing information Transitioning between ideas Identifying main ideas and supporting details Following the multiple stages of writing (pre-writing, drafting, revising, editing, publishing)
	Flexibility	Being able to shift things around in one's writing and make appropriate revisions Understanding that writing is a recursive process, thus being able to revisit and modify previous work
Math
	Working Memory	Keeping track of multi-step problems Recalling which formulas to use when solving various problems Recalling and applying problem-solving strategies
	Focus	Sustaining attention to a problem-solving task, even when it becomes difficult Staying focused on each step of a problem in order to solve it
	Planning	Thinking ahead about the kind of problem that one is solving and the steps that one needs to take in order to solve it Prioritizing problem-solving strategies
	Organization	Organizing one's notations/images on paper in a clear way Organizing the information in word problems and multi-step problems
	Metacognition	Being able to explain and communicate in words one's own mathematical reasoning Thinking about one's reasoning and determining whether or not it makes sense Self-evaluating/checking one’s work
	Flexibility	Shifting between different presentations of problems (i.e. word problems, equations, etc.) Shifting one's strategy or approach when the one being used at present is not working Shifting between the modes of representation of one's work (i.e. notations, written sentences, charts or graphs, drawn pictures, etc.)

How Can One Determine if My Child Has Executive Functioning Difficulties?

Helping your child to develop executive functioning skills is likely to involve a number of steps. First, it is important to assess your child’s executive strengths and weaknesses. Having discussions with your child's school psychologist may be helpful. We have provided questionnaires that can help you identify some of your child’s executive strengths and weaknesses. We encourage you to complete these questionnaires in order to better understand their executive functioning and to begin to use some of our recommendations in order to improve their skills.

Questionnaire

Complete the following questionnaire to determine the executive strengths and weaknesses of your child.

Adults and Executive Functioning

Adults with executive dysfunctions report a wide range of symptoms in their daily work lives. Some may report simply that their homes or desks at work are disorganized. Others describe tendencies to anger easily or to overreact to minor stressors. Very commonly, adults report memory lapses such as walking into the kitchen but forgetting what they went there to get. All of these can be considered to be examples of executive dysfunctions. For most adults, these problems do not interfere greatly with their day-to-day living or their performance in their jobs. However, for some individuals, these executive difficulties cause problems in relationships and inefficiencies at work and may have an impact on self-esteem.

Recent studies suggest that executive functioning skills can continue to develop and improve through the mid-30s. However, there are a number of executive skills that may be more time-sensitive, so that to practice and develop these skills requires efforts to be done at a much younger age, when the human brain has enhanced plasticity to change. There are, however, dozens of recent studies suggesting that sustained “brain exercise” can result in maintaining a high level of executive functioning, as well as develop new neuronal connections in the brain. Many of these “brain-training” programs are being developed and marketed for older adults.

Executive functioning strengths and weaknesses are displayed somewhat differently in adults than in children. Difficulties with executive skills may play a larger role in relationship issues than they do with children. In addition, many adults with executive dysfunctions have never received any type of educational or psychiatric interventions for these concerns and most likely have not identified these concerns as treatable.

Current research suggests that many executive dysfunctions persist into adulthood. Hopefully the increasingly available information about executive functioning will benefit adults wishing to consider their own skill sets. The modified Dawson and Guare (2004) model of executive functioning skills can help adults to assess their executive strengths and weaknesses.

Books for Further Reading

FLEXIBILITY

Cooper-Kahn, Joyce, Ph.D. and Laurie C. Dietzel, Ph.D. Late, Lost, and Unprepared: A Parent's Guide to Helping Children with Executive Functioning (Chapter 12). Maryland: Woodbine House, 2008.

Cox, Adam J., Ph.D. No Mind Left Behind (Chapter 4). London, England: Perigee Press, 2007.

Dawson, Peg, Ed.D. and Richard Guare, Ph.D. Executive Skills in Children and Adolescents. New York: Guilford Press, 2010.

Dawson, Peg, Ed.D. and Richard Guare, Ph.D. Smart but Scattered (Chapter 19). New York: Guilford Press, 2009.

Galinksy, Ellen. Mind in the Making: The Seven Essential Life Skills Every Child Needs (Chapter 2). New York: Harper Collins, 2010.

McCloskey, George, Lisa A. Perkins, and Bob Van Divner. Assessment and Intervention for Executive Function Difficulties. New York: Routledge, 2009.

Meltzer, Lynn. Promoting Executive Function in the Classroom (Chapter 6). New York: Guilford Press, 2010.

Richard, Gail J., Ph.D. and Jill K. Fahy. The Source for Development of Executive Functions. East Moline, IL: LinguiSystems, Inc., 2005.

FOCUS

Cooper-Kahn, Joyce, Ph.D. and Laurie C. Dietzel, Ph.D. Late, Lost, and Unprepared: A Parent's Guide to Helping Children with Executive Functioning (Chapter 13). Maryland: Woodbine House, 2008.

Cox, Adam J., Ph.D. No Mind Left Behind (Chapter 3, 5). London, England: Perigee Press, 2007.

Dawson, Peg, Ed.D. and Richard Guare, Ph.D. Executive Skills in Children and Adolescents. New York: Guilford Press, 2010.

Dawson, Peg, Ed.D. and Richard Guare, Ph.D. Smart but Scattered (Chapter 14, 15). New York: Guilford Press, 2009.

Emmett, Rita. The Procrastinating Child: A Handbook for Adults to Help Children Stop Putting Things Off. New York: Walker and Company, 2002.

Espeland, Pamela and Elizabeth Verdick. See You Later, Procrastinator! Minneapolis, MN: Free Spirit, 2008.

Faber, Adele and Elaine Mazlish. How to Talk so Kids will Listen and How to Listen so Kids Will Talk. New York: Harper Collins, 1999.

Galinksy, Ellen. Mind in the Making: The Seven Essential Life Skills Every Child Needs (Chapter 1). New York: Harper Collins, 2010.

McCloskey, George, Lisa A. Perkins, and Bob Van Divner. Assessment and Intervention for Executive Function Difficulties. New York: Routledge, 2009.

Meltzer, Lynn. Promoting Executive Function in the Classroom (Chapter 3). New York: Guilford Press, 2010.

Pohlman, Craig. How Can My Kid Succeed in School? San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2009.

Richard, Gail J., Ph.D. and Jill K. Fahy. The Source for Development of Executive Functions. East Moline, IL: LinguiSystems, Inc., 2005.

ORGANIZATION

Cooper-Kahn, Joyce, Ph.D. and Laurie C. Dietzel. Late, Lost, and Unprepared: A Parent's Guide to Helping Children with Executive Functioning (Chapter 15). Maryland: Woodbine House, 2008.

Cox, Adam J., Ph.D. No Mind Left Behind (Chapter 6). London, England: Perigee Press, 2007.

Dawson, Peg, Ed.D. and Richard Guare, Ph.D. Executive Skills in Children and Adolescents. New York: Guilford Press, 2010.

Dawson, Peg, Ed.D. and Richard Guare, Ph.D. Smart but Scattered (Chapter 17). New York: Guilford Press, 2009.

Galinksy, Ellen. Mind in the Making: The Seven Essential Life Skills Every Child Needs (Chapter 4). New York: Harper Collins, 2010.

Goldberg, Donna. The Organized Student. New York: Fireside, 2005.

Kutscher, Martin L. and Marcella Moran. Organizing the Disorganized Child. New York: Harper Collins, 2009.

McCloskey, George, Lisa A. Perkins, and Bob Van Divner. Assessment and Intervention for Executive Function Difficulties. New York: Routledge, 2009.

Meltzer, Lynn. Promoting Executive Function in the Classroom (Chapter 4). New York: Guilford Press, 2010.

Morgenstern, Julie and Jesse Morgenstern-Colon. Organizing from the Inside Out for Teenagers: The Foolproof System for Organizing Your Room, Your Time, and Your Life. New York: Henry Holt, 2002.

Moss, Samantha and Lesley Schwartz. Where's My Stuff: The Ultimate Teen Organizing Guide. San Francisco, CA: Zest Books, 2007.

Richard, Gail J. and Jill K. Fahy. The Source for Development of Executive Functions. East Moline, IL: Lingua Systems, 2005.

PLANNING

Cooper-Kahn, Joyce, Ph.D. and Laurie C. Dietzel. Late, Lost, and Unprepared: A Parent's Guide to Helping Children with Executive Functioning (Chapter 15). Maryland: Woodbine House, 2008.

Cox, Adam J., Ph.D. No Mind Left Behind (Chapter 6). London, England: Perigee Press, 2007.

Dawson, Peg, Ed.D. and Richard Guare, Ph.D. Executive Skills in Children and Adolescents. New York: Guilford Press, 2010.

Dawson, Peg, Ed.D. and Richard Guare, Ph.D. Smart but Scattered (Chapter 16). New York: Guilford Press, 2009.

Galinksy, Ellen. Mind in the Making: The Seven Essential Life Skills Every Child Needs (Chapter 4). New York: Harper Collins, 2010.

McCloskey, George, Lisa A. Perkins, and Bob Van Divner. Assessment and Intervention for Executive Function Difficulties. New York: Routledge, 2009.

Richard, Gail J. and Jill K. Fahy. The Source for Development of Executive Functions. East Moline, IL: Lingua Systems, 2005.

Roehlkepartain, Jolene L., and Nancy Leffert. What Young Children Need to Succeed: Working Together to Build Assets from Birth to Age 11. Minneapolis, MN: Free Spirit, 2000.

SELF-CONTROL

Cooper-Kahn, Joyce, Ph.D. and Laurie C. Dietzel, Ph.D. Late, Lost, and Unprepared: A Parent's Guide to Helping Children with Executive Functioning (Chapter 11). Maryland: Woodbine House, 2008.

Cox, Adam J., Ph.D. No Mind Left Behind (Chapter 9). London, England: Perigee Press

Dawson, Peg, Ed.D. and Richard Guare, Ph.D. Executive Skills in Children and Adolescents. New York: Guilford Press, 2010.

Dawson, Peg, Ed.D. and Richard Guare, Ph.D. Smart but Scattered (Chapter 11, 13). New York: Guilford Press, 2009.

Galinksy, Ellen. Mind in the Making: The Seven Essential Life Skills Every Child Needs (Chapter 1). New York: Harper Collins, 2010.

Goldberg, Pamela. Become a Master of Self-Control: Meet Melly, Her Color is Mad. Bloomington, IL: Camp Make Believe, 2003.

Lantieri, Linda and Daniel Goleman. Building Emotional Intelligence. Boulder, CO: Sounds True, Inc., 2008.

McCloskey, George, Lisa A. Perkins, and Bob Van Divner. Assessment and Intervention for Executive Function Difficulties. New York: Routledge, 2009.

Meltzer, Lynn. Promoting Executive Function in the Classroom (Chapter 7). New York: Guilford Press, 2010.


Richard, Gail J., Ph.D. and Jill K. Fahy. The Source for Development of Executive Functions. East Moline, IL: LinguiSystems, Inc., 2005.

Schwarzchild, Michael, Ph.D. Helping Your Difficult Child Behave: A Guide to Improving Children's Self-Control--Without Losing Your Own. New York: Authors Guild, 2000.

TIME MANAGEMENT

Cooper-Kahn, Joyce, Ph.D. and Laurie C. Dietzel, Ph.D. Late, Lost, and Unprepared: A Parent's Guide to Helping Children with Executive Functioning. Maryland: Woodbine House, 2008.

Cox, Adam J., Ph.D. No Mind Left Behind (Chapter 6). London, England: Perigee Press, 2007.

Dawson, Peg, Ed.D. and Richard Guare, Ph.D. Executive Skills in Children and Adolescents. New York: Guilford Press, 2010.

Dawson, Peg, Ed.D. and Richard Guare, Ph.D. Smart but Scattered (Chapter 18). New York: Guilford Press, 2009.

Espeland, Pamela and Elizabeth Verdick. Smart Ways to Spend Your Time: The Constructive Use of Time Assets. Minneapolis, MN: Free Spirit, 2005.

Galinksy, Ellen. Mind in the Making: The Seven Essential Life Skills Every Child Needs (Chapter 1). New York: Harper Collins, 2010.

McCloskey, George, Lisa A. Perkins, and Bob Van Divner. Assessment and Intervention for Executive Function Difficulties. New York: Routledge, 2009.

Morgenstern, Julie and Jessi Morgenstern-Colon. Organizing From the Inside Out for Teenagers: The Foolproof System for Organizing Your Room, Your Time, and Your Life. New York: Henry Holt and Company, LLC, 2002.

Richard, Gail J, Ph.D. and Jill K. Fahy. The Source for Development of Executive Functions. East Moline, IL: LinguiSystems, Inc., 2005.

WORKING MEMORY

Cooper-Kahn, Joyce, Ph.D. and Laurie C. Dietzel, Ph.D. Late, Lost, and Unprepared: A Parent's Guide to Helping Children with Executive Functioning (Chapter 14). Maryland: Woodbine House, 2008.

Cox, Adam J., Ph.D. No Mind Left Behind (Chapter 7). London, England: Perigee Press, 2007.

Dawson, Peg, Ed.D. and Richard Guare, Ph.D. Executive Skills in Children and Adolescents. New York: Guilford Press, 2010.

Dawson, Peg, Ed.D. and Richard Guare, Ph.D. Smart but Scattered (Chapter 12). New York: Guilford Press, 2009.

Dehn, Milton J. Working Memory and Academic Learning. Hoboken, NJ: Riverside Publishing Company, 2008.

Galinksy, Ellen. Mind in the Making: The Seven Essential Life Skills Every Child Needs (Chapter 1). New York: Harper Collins, 2010.

McCloskey, George, Lisa A. Perkins, and Bob Van Divner. Assessment and Intervention for Executive Function Difficulties. New York: Routledge, 2009.

Meltzer, Lynn. Promoting Executive Function in the Classroom (Chapter 5). New York: Guilford Press, 2010.

Pohlman, Craig. How Can My Kid Succeed in School? San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2009.

Richard, Gail J, Ph.D. and Jill K. Fahy. The Source for Development of Executive Functions. East Moline, IL: LinguiSystems, Inc., 2005.